Introductions 63 f. Conclusions 65 g. Connecting Paragraphs 69 Professional Model Speech Illustrating College Projects 73 b. Visuals as Evidence 74 c. Copying vs. Creating Visuals 78 d. Revising Visuals Gaining Perspective 82 b.
Revising 83 c. Reconsidering Your Title 86 Revising Locally d. Choosing Words 87 e. Editing Sentences 88 Revising with Others f. Peer Revising 90 g. Working with a Tutor, Instructor 92 Proofreading and Formatting h. Proofreading 93 i. Formatting an Academic Text 95 j. Comprehending b. Reflecting c. Persuading and Exploring b. Claims c. Rhetorical Evidence d. Alternative Viewpoints e. Assumptions, Common Ground f. Classical, Rogerian, Toulmin Models g. Design Principles b. Planning c.
Applying the Principles Writing, Answering E-mail b. Creating Websites, Web Pages c. Writing in Interactive Media Purpose, Audience, Context, Genre b. Topic and Thesis c. Organization d. Preparing and Rehearsing e.
Delivering the Presentation f. Speaking Responsibly Analyzing the Assignment b. Setting a Schedule c. Choosing, Narrowing a Topic d.
Research Questions, Hypotheses e. Choosing Sources Strategically f. Research Log g. Working Bibliography Reference Works b. Information on the Web c. Interactive Media d. Articles in Journals, Periodicals e.
Books f. Government Information g. Multimedia Sources h. Field Research Relevance and Reliability b. Online Texts c. Visual Sources Valuing Research b. Acknowledging c. Notes to Avoid Plagiarizing d. Notes That Help You Research e. Paraphrasing, Not Patchwriting f. Summarizing g. Quoting h. Thesis Statement b. Organization c. Drafting d. Source Material b.
Source Boundaries c. Your Voice d. Context e. Altered Quotations MLA Style Notes d. APA Reference List c. APA Style Notes d. Chicago-Style Notes and Bibliography b. Chicago Style Tables and Figures c. CSE Reference List c. Approach b. Resources c. Citing, Documenting Sources d. Language e. Writing about Fiction f. Writing about Poetry g. Research Methods c. Preparing for an Exam b. Previewing the Exam c. Business Letter Formats b. Business Letters c.
Business Memos d. Job Application Letters e. Reports and Proposals g. Wordy Expressions b. Unnecessary Repetition c. Indirect Constructions d.
Consolidation 27 Using Coordination andSubordination a. Coordinating Terms, Phrases, Clauses b. Effective Coordination c. Main Ideas, Supporting Information d. Coordination and Subordination Pairs and Series b. Comparisons c. Function d. Lists and Outlines e. Emphasis Varying Sentence Length b. Varying Sentence Openings c. Emphasis with Rhythm d. Emphasis with Punctuation e. Questions, Commands, Exclamations f.
Strategic Repetition g. Emphatic Verbs h. Active or Passive Voice Language in Context b. Diction b. Compelling Words and Figures c.
Idioms d. Choosing a Dictionary b. Using a Dictionary c. Common Spelling Problems d. Spelling Rules e. Plurals f. Improving Your Spelling Writing Unified Paragraphs c. Michael Amorelli rated it really liked it Jul 22, Writing matters rebecca moore howard are my shipping options? Devising a Literary Thesis c. Consolidate phrases, clauses, and sentences 30 Using Parallelism a. Academic and Business Documents a. Reasoning Matters 7 Thinking and Reading Critically a. All shipping options assumes the product is available and that it will take 24 to 48 hours to process your order prior to shipping.
For shipments to locations writing matters rebecca moore howard of the U. Distinguish main ideas from supporting ideas with subordination d. Stay positive, helpful, and friendly, and link each comment to something specific in the text. When planning your schedule, include time to take advantage of these services.
Words through tone and First, be sure that each word reflects your intended meaning, that it has the style. If readers have to guess your intent, they may not guess correctly, and they may be annoyed at having to figure it out.
Both refer Connotation, 16, to people who use violence to achieve political ends. More about Next, consider the level of formality that is appropriate to your writing Levels of for- situation. A text message to a friend may be filled with slang and acronyms, mality, 15—16, but this informality is rarely appropriate in academic or professional writ- —97 Biased language, ing.
Writers who intend to sound sophisticated by trotting out a word like —17 progenitor to mean parent may instead make themselves sound pompous. General and spe- All writing benefits from avoiding biased language—language that unfairly cific language, —20 or offensively characterizes groups or individuals.
Finally, consider whether you have combined general, abstract language with specific, concrete words. Sentences More about When revising, ask yourself these three questions about your sentences: Common sen- tence problems, 1.
Are they grammatically correct? Are they varied, and do they emphasize the most important infor- Sentence prob- mation? Are they as concise as they can be without losing meaning or Emphasis, — affecting style? How do the changes Michael made improve the reading experience?
An effective way to achieve the distance you need to proofread effectively is to print out your draft and read the hard copy line by line from the bottom up. Mark each correction on the printout as you read; enter them one by one, and then. They may even lead you astray, suggesting words that are close to the word you mistyped defiant for the misspelled defi- nate but worlds away from the word you intended definite.
As a writer, you have a responsibility not to leave your reader guessing. Only you can know what you meant to say! If you did not rectly placed. Another option for proofreading is to work in teams: One More about Using a dictio- person reads the text including punctuation marks out loud, while the nary, —27 other person marks errors on the printout. Usage glossary, A proofreading checklist appears in the Self-Assessment box above.
If you are a non-native speaker of English, ask your instructor if you can have a friend or classmate help you proofread. A visit to the writing center may help, too. Now consider his final draft. Has he now successfully fulfilled his responsibilities Outlines, 23, 24 to his audience, topic, other writers, and himself?
Rethinking Alternative Energy Descriptive title centered The rise of alternative energy industries has been challenging, controversial, and. With the availability of many forms of alternative energy systems globally, it is.
Conversations are taking place at many. The problematic relationships between alternative energy industries and the. Most agree Introduction that fossil-fuel-based power plants are damaging the climate and making life harder for.
Which forms present the best alternative to fossil-fuels,. One of the primary benefits of energy sources. They are. Despite the clear benefits of these sources, some. The structures needed to produce these forms of alternative.
If alternative energy ends up putting the. Wind turbines are killing birds,. The American Bird. Conservancy ABC , a group whose mission is to protect bird species and their habitats.
An ABC. These wind turbines, which. The group predicts that by. Steven Cherry, a reporter with The Iowa. Center for Public Affairs Journalism—a state-wide political watchdog group—highlighted. He lists the Northern long-eared bat, which is an endangered species,. California desert, which is part of the largest solar energy complex in the world, birds. A report by the. Flesh catches fire as the birds are ignited.
Researchers with the U. Solar energy is one of the most abundant and seemingly. Nuclear Topic sentence. Its physical effects are predicted to reach decades. Naoto Kan, former prime minister. He was quoted in Deutche Welle, a German broadcasting. If the accident had been. Nuclear energy holds potential as an alternative. Restates Clearly, environmentally conscious citizens acknowledge how important it is Transition thesis more specifically to check global warming and diversify our energy portfolio, but it is crucial that we.
It is not enough to be. Instead of merely. It will be a long time before Concludes alternative energy production can meet the accelerating global demand. The solution to by empha- sizing impor- this problem will have to include ways of not only increasing renewable energy production tance of issue safely but also of reducing global consumption substantially.
Cherry, Steven. Center for Public Affairs Journalism, 30 June , iowawatch. Deverakonda, Akshay. Crisis Reporting, 5 Mar. Deutsche Welle, 25 Feb. McCurry, Justin. Guardian, 11 Aug. To Topic Use design to create an impression that is appropriate to your topic, use associations and color combinations that are appropriate, and use visuals and multimedia to aid under- standing when they are appropriate to your context and genre. To Other Writers Treat sources with respect and acknowledge your sources, including when you are making a presentation.
To Yourself Show pride and commitment by using design to reject and reinforce what you want to express, adopting positions you believe in, and prepar- ing fully for all projects and presentations. Identifying Your Writing a. Planning Your Design a. Devising a Topic and b. Laying Out and Formatting b. Connecting with the d. According to renowned designer Robin Williams, these.
What is your topic, and how can you reflect that topic through your design? Who will your audience be, what kind of expectations. Is your purpose to inform, to persuade, to express yourself, 21—23, 99 or to entertain, and how should this be reflected in your design?
In what context academic, business, public or setting —01 over the Internet, in person will your project be received, and Context and how might this affect its design? Will this document be distributed in print or digitally? If digitally, in what sort of media? Should it operate on a variety of electronic devices?
Consider audience and context as you make these decisions. Then determine how the pieces of information you want to convey relate More about to one another, and organize them accordingly. Create an overall impression ness projects, Start by considering the overall impression you want to give the reader: 56—59 Should the design be conservative or trendy, serious or playful?
Let your own sense of style and the nature of your project guide you in your choice of colors, fonts, and visuals. Plan the layout Next consider the overall layout, the visual arrangement of text and images. An effective layout should use proximity, alignment, repetition, and con- trast to make the relationships among the elements clear. Format the document Create a cohesive and attractive design by using the following elements:.
Serif fonts fonts with a little tail on the ends of letters, like underlining, —74 Cambria and Times New Roman are easier to read when printed on paper, while sans serif fonts such as and Calibri are easier to read on screen and are preferred for web publishing. In addition to selecting the font family, you can set your font in a vari- ety of styles, including boldface, italics, underlining, or color. Use color or boldface for emphasis and contrast, but do so consistently and sparingly: The more they are used, the less attention they will call to themselves.
Because italics and underlining often have specific meaning, avoid using them except when necessary. Apply the core design principles of repetition and contrast to your font choices: Repeat the same font for consistency and use a different font to produce contrast. When choosing a font size, make sure it will be easy to read especially if you are using it for the body of your project.
Not all readers have perfect vision. Otherwise, when the font suddenly information about the source in a bibliography. Margins provide white space, as does the extra space before a paragraph and around a heading. Extra white space can group elements into a section or lend emphasis through contrast.
Ample white space makes a page inviting and easy to read; without it, a page looks crowded, and the eye has difficulty knowing where to focus. A news page is by necessity crowded with information, so it also adds lists, boxes, and bullets to make the page easier to navigate. Keep lists succinct to allow readers to skim them for informa- Ana. They can be particularly effective in web pages, go Blue Violet log.
An Violet Violet s. Consider your audience carefully as you choose colors; their associations vary from one culture to another. White, for example, is the color for weddings in the United States; in China, the "wedding color" is red. Make sure, too, that you choose the visual that is most appropriate to the information you are conveying. See the Quick Reference box on the next page.
TABLE 7. Use tables to display large Type of Disability —06 —07 —08 —09 amounts of data, Autism 3. Orthopedic impairments 1. Use Visual impairments 0. Us er e. Aid to the Middle Class w Fe. Bar graphs. Photographs and other images. Use photographs To. Line graphs. Just as an outfit sends a message to a potential employer about whether you would be a good fit, the texts you write also represent you. To be successful, your words must be tailored to the context in which they are going to be read.
Such tailoring allows readers to focus on the ideas, not on the appearance of your writing project. Because your reader usually, your instructor will be focusing mainly on your content—your ideas and how you express them—keep formatting simple, and focus on presenting your text clearly, using a standard font such as Times New Roman or in or point type and leaving 1- to 1. Include More about MLA format, identifying information on the first page or on a title page and in a header — tab 6 that appears on each page in case pages get separated.
Sample pages from an MLA-style project appear in Figure 8. All these business communications share an emphasis on getting to the point quickly and conveying information clearly, directly, and concisely. Suspends 44 Students in Plagiarism Scandal. EbscoHost, chronicle. For this reason, nearly all those invested in this system—students, pp. They Hunt, Russell. Practices among higher education students are not much better.
McCabe, a professor at Rutgers University who has. A study by Hard et al. Figure 1 illustrates the various forms this plagiarism took. McCabe, Donald L. School for Champions, 6 Dec ,. Figure caption Fig. Data and categories from Hard et al. Business email should include a subject line that Lydia Nichols, accurately summarizes the content of the message.
APA style Both business letters and email messages usually use block style, More about in which all text aligns with the left-hand margin.
Instead of indenting Abbreviating paragraphs, an extra line of space is inserted between them. In some cultures such messages Ms.
Grayson: Salutation view them as efficient and time-saving. I am responding to your letter of September 28 about the difficulties you had in trying to purchase a gift certificate for your friends, the Websters. First let me say that I apologize and can assure you that the employee you spoke to on the phone apologizes as well. The only things we require are faxed copies of identification and a credit card, and a filled-out gift certificate form—all of which you summarizes your work and educational expe- rience for a prospective employer.
It is also our policy to keep guest information confidential at all times. In this instance, however, it is clear that we failed to execute our procedures. Body is usually accompanied by an application or a I have spoken to the employee involved and explained the importance of our system and guest satisfaction. I will do my best to help you in any way I can.
What will persuade them to put your application at the top of the pile? General Manager for which you are applying, a listing of the Enc. Enclosure indicated degrees you hold college and above and when you received them, and any honors or certifications you have attained. Be sure to list your employers in reverse chronological order Document most recent first. Include any specific skills such as proficiency in Excel design, 51—55 or Dreamweaver or fluency in another language , and include references or indicate that they are available on request.
Any recipient you list in this line will receive a copy of your message but will not be identified to other recipients. Sending blind copies to keep the email addresses of recipients private is ethical, but blind-copying a recipient to deceive your correspondent into believing a message is confidential is not.
So your readers will not mistakenly believe they are the only recipient of a message, mention in the body of the message that it is being shared with others. Sonja Jacques W. I would welcome the opportunity to put museum Courses in artifact preservation, program management, museum funding.
With European Trained workstudy employees in library policies; shelved returned books. Highlights curators as teachers, I came to understand the many facets of running educational ties a museum, including preserving artifacts and tapping sources of Intern, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC, summer I also learned about the myriad jobs that go on behind the Conducted museum tours for school groups; catalogued textual scenes and decided that museum life was where I wanted to be in my archives; assisted researchers.
This decision was reinforced many times over while I was an intern Organized inventory; waited on customers; learned apparel business. I especially enjoyed working with Links work researchers on new interactive exhibits and using my French language experience to job skills with international visitors.
I would be delighted to meet with you for an Asks for interview interview at any time. You may phone me at — or email and gives contact me at sonjaja gmail. I look forward to hearing from you. Figure 8. Address your cover letter to a specific person, even if you have to phone the company to determine who that is. Start your letter by mentioning the specific job for which you are applying.
Conclude your letter by asking for an interview and providing information about how you can be reached. Every website begins with a home page, the page designed to intro- duce visitors to the site. Reference Quick Consider Your Rhetorical Situation When Creating a Website Purpose and Focus see what you post on the open web, so avoid Readers scan websites quickly, so keep your language or content that you or others might find sentences brief and clear and your focus tight.
If the information you are providing will remain Context and Audience current for a long time, create a website that you Consider any restrictions of your host site update once or twice a year; if your site requires sponsor as you plan your site. Unlike print documents in which reading traditionally proceeds linearly the document is arranged so that all readers begin at page 1 and read through to the end , most websites are networked users may enter the site at any page and follow their own path through it.
A site that includes a home page and a handful of web pages—documents that, like the home page itself, may include text, audio, still images, and database files—with loosely related content may work best with a hub-and-spoke structure, where each page links back to the home page Figure 8.
If your website will offer a series of pages with related content, a hierarchical arrangement, with links from the home page to lower-level pages and from page to page, may be more useful Figure 8.
Web Web Home page page page. Flaming—writing a scathing response to someone with whom you disagree—is a great temptation, but it shuts down reasoned dis- cussion, instead encouraging ad hominem personal attack. Since users frequently move from page to page in search of information, make navigation easy by providing links within a web page and menus at the top or side of the page. The very familiarity of these media can lull writers into making errors that they later regret.
As writers seamlessly move from the Yik Yak app to the Mail app, for example, the style and tone of what they write must also make the instantaneous change. Think about your purpose, and tailor your writing style and tone to your intended audience.
When participating in online discussions, focus on responding directly to the comments of other participants and summarizing the discussion before moving on. Your online voice can be casual, but strive to keep your comments clear and to maintain a voice that is friendly and polite, even when you disagree.
When participating in a discussion in asynchronous media media that do not require participants to sign on at the same time, like email and blogs , reflect on and proofread your comments before posting them. Very few of us ever have an opportunity to reach such a large audience on a topic of global importance.
Still, we are often called upon to present our ideas. If we can present them clearly and compellingly, using multiple media when they will help us reach listeners, we, too, can effect change. In an academic or a business context, your primary purpose is likely Purpose, 14—15, to be the same as for a written text: to present information or to persuade 21—23, 99— Audience, 15, 41, others to accept your position or to take action.
Even more so than a writ- ten text, an oral presentation is likely also to have a secondary purpose: to Topic, 15, 18—23, engage the imagination or emotions of the audience so that members can —01 Context and more readily identify with and remember the key points. When addressing an unfamiliar group, ask yourself why the group has assembled and which top- ics they would be interested in. It may be useful to ask the event organizers about audience characteristics and interests. The context, or setting, in which you deliver your presentation will affect the kinds of equipment you will need, the types of multimedia aids you create, and the relationship you can establish with your audience.
When addressing a small group in a college classroom, for example, you will prob- ably not need any special equipment, whereas in larger settings you may need a projector, a sound system, and special lighting. Finally, consider the genre of your presentation. As a college student, you are most likely to be asked to contribute to or lead a class discus- sion, or to give a presentation online or in person to a class, student group, or social service organization.
In business, you may be asked to train colleagues or make a sales pitch to potential customers in person or online. If you are uncomfortable with the idea of speaking in class, let your instructor know. If students in your class seem uncomfortable when they speak, remember that you are responsible for being an effective listener as well as a speaker.
That means listening patiently and respectfully at all times. Your topic and approach should engage you and your Devising a topic, audience and offer special insight. Craft a thesis that conveys your purpose 18—21, —01 and that will engage and guide your audience. Crafting a thesis, 21—23, — Organize your talk to help your audience hold your main points in memory while the presentation unfolds.
Introduction Use your introduction 10—15 percent of your presentation to develop a More about rapport with your audience and to establish the key points of your presen- Introductions, 35—36 tation. Your introduction should specify your topic and approach, convey why it should matter to your audience, engage your audience, establish your credentials, and provide a brief overview of your main points.
Body The body 75—85 percent of your presentation should explain the points More about that you previewed in your introduction. For each claim you make, supply Organizing, 23—24, 41, appropriate, relevant evidence, such as specific examples drawn from your —34 reading or your experience. Facts and statistics can be very effective as Explaining and long as you do not burden your audience with more numbers than it can supporting process.
Presenting statistics in tion, —15 Transitions, 29—31 graphs or charts can also help. Adding visuals, 54—55 3. Conclusion Keep your conclusion brief 5—10 percent of your presentation. Use it to More about reinforce the main point of the presentation: Repeat the main idea and key Conclusions, 36—37 points, end with a brief but powerful statement, or return to the opening anecdote, example, or statistic.
The notes will keep you organized and prevent you from forgetting important points while allowing you to make eye contact with the audience. Prepare a speaking outline When speaking from notes, create a speaking outline by jotting notes on a More about topic outline about where to pause, when to increase the urgency in your Topic outlines, voice, and when to advance to the next slide or visual aid. Add content 23—24, notes, too, but keep them brief, including only as much information as you need to remind yourself of the point you want to make.
Use language effectively More about Well-chosen language can help listeners understand and remember your Abstract versus main points. When you can, use familiar, concrete words; support abstract concrete lan- guage, —20 words with concrete examples and vivid figures of speech such as meta- Eliminating wordi- phors and similes; keep your sentences concise; and use parallelism and ness, —98 repetition to emphasize your points.
Figures of speech, —21 3. Use visual, audio, and multimedia aids Parallelism, — When using visual, audio, or multimedia aids during a presentation, make Repetition inten- sure the aids are relevant, that you explain them clearly and succinctly, and tional , that you do not provide so many that the audience pays attention to them rather than to you.
Be sure, too, that you speak to your audience, not to your visual aids. The following tips may hands. Instead, use the adrenaline surge help you get through your presentation with a to add energy to your presentation. Assessment Self Using Presentation Software Effectively When preparing a presentation, reflect on balanced; limit your use of animations your work. If you answer no to any of the the way text or images enter a slide.
Do not overwhelm mands? Keystroke commands allow you your presentation by creating a slide for to advance or return to slides, use the every moment. This show. Use ani- useful identifying information, such as mations to bring information forward, your college or business affiliation and and do not leave slides up after you your Twitter handle. The audi- advance?
Make sure that cords are long ence should be listening to you, not enough, that you can lower the lights reading your slides. To make slides easy and cover windows, and so forth. To enhance interest, tation without your slides? Go to a sentation software. If the power fails or blank slide when no illustration is your computer dies, you should still be relevant. Keep slides uncluttered and. Design Title options slide. Slide layouts. For an informative speech, be sure your information is current and your examples pertinent.
For a persuasive speech, adopt a position that you believe in, one for which you can offer compelling, concrete evidence. Do not alter quotations unfairly or misuse statistics. Avoid words and images that manipulate your audience or that rely on logical fallacies. Rehearse More about Practice your presentation out loud in front of a mirror, a group of friends Logical fallacies, or family, or a video camera.
Plan at least two or three practice sessions to 80—82 become comfortable with the content of your presentation and to polish your delivery. As you prepare to give formal presentations, pay attention to the gestures commonly made by classmates or other peers who represent your prospective audience. How do they differ from gestures you are accustomed to? Are you aware of any gestures you should not use while speaking to a multicultural audience?
Then introduce yourself, thank the audience for attending, and smile. As you speak, look out at the audi- ence, turning to the left, the right, and the center, so all members of the audience feel included. Speak slowly and clearly. Pause between sections of your presentation, and vary the tone of your voice. If you sense that you are losing your audience, slow your pace, increase your volume, or step closer to the audience. To avoid ableism, assume that some members of your audience have impaired hearing or vision.
Speak loudly and clearly; make your graphics large; and do not choose a background design that interferes with readability. To Audience Adjust your approach, your language, your ci- tation style, and your use of visuals in response to the expectations of academic readers; reason logically, and appeal to the intellect and when appropriate the emotions of the audience.
To Topic Choose topics that are appropriate to your discipline, that are debatable when writing an argument, and that go beyond summary when analyzing literature. To Other Writers Treat alternative viewpoints fairly and oppo- nents with respect, and cite and document sources fully, using the style guide that is appro- priate to the discipline in which you are writing.
To Yourself Establish your credibility by adopting a rea- sonable tone, using sound logic, and treating opposing views fairly; take the time to think deeply about your topic and to write about it creatively and thoughtfully.
Reading and Analyzing Works a. Adopting an Academic b. Using the Sources of the c. Supporting Your Claims with c.
Using the Language of the d. Citing and Documenting Yourself as a Responsible e. Considering Alternative Student Models Textual e. Discovering Assumptions and f. The traditional disciplines are the humanities, the social sciences, and the natural sciences.
Just as we eat from all four food groups meat and beans, fruits and vegetables, dairy, grains to maintain a balanced diet, so do many colleges require stu- dents to taste each of the disciplines to. Whether you focus on a single discipline or take a bite from them all, understanding the academic approach and tools of each dis- cipline is crucial to college success.
A biologist, for Analysis, 10—12, 34, 90, , example, is likely to test claims by producing laboratory data, a sociologist might administer a survey, and a literature scholar might read a novel or poem closely. The disciplines also vary according to the types of sources they use, the ways they use language, the way they cite and document their sources, the way they use visuals, and the kinds of questions they ask on exams.
As you learn the research meth- ods of a discipline, take the time to locate its ethical code and learn what that discipline most values in its writing and research. To find scholarly articles, use discipline-specific databases, such versus popular as the MLA International Bibliography for literature or PsycArticles for sources, —19 psychology.
A librarian can help you determine which databases are most Finding articles, —11 appropriate for your discipline. Primary versus For researchers, the scholarly books and articles they use are secondary secondary sources. These sources describe, evaluate, or interpret primary sources, and sources, 90—91, they synthesize information from primary and secondary sources. Academic —15 researchers also rely on primary sources. In the humanities, those may be works of literature, art, or film, or they may be historical documents or speeches.
In the natural sciences and social sciences, primary data come from observational studies, surveys, interviews, and laboratory or field experiments. In some cultures, students are expected to EF memorize and report the information the instructor conveys in class. In the United States, most instructors also expect students to express their own ideas and to think critically about what they are learning. If you find this difficult, you are not alone.
Most college students, regardless of their national origin or native language, find these expectations challenging. Courses may be taught in English, but the vocabulary is specialized. Consider, for example, the following passage from an article in a linguistics journal: My corpus data largely supports these arguments, although there are also early instances of YOU that do not occur in ambiguous contexts.
In accusative plus infinitive constructions with verbs such as pray, there is a great deal of variation in the choice of the pronoun form. Variation between the two pronoun forms was quite prolonged in optative sentences. More about Corpus data? Accusative constructions? Optative sentences? What does it all Specialized ency- mean? To understand this paragraph, readers have to learn specialized clopedias and vocabulary.
If they do not, ask your instructor for an explanation or consult a specialized encyclopedia or dictionary. Some may be available online through your college library. More about In literature and the humanities, most writers use the present Writing about literature, tense to discuss the work and the past or present tense to discuss 88—98 actual events.
In the natural sciences and social sciences, writers often use the passive voice to describe how research was conducted The participants were randomly assigned to one of three groups. To learn the expectations of your new language communities, read assigned texts and listen to lectures, paying close attention to how lan- guage is used. Writers in the other humanities tend to use the Chicago —56 Manual of Style.
The most commonly used style guide in the social sciences Chicago style, is the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association. Models for citing sources in the text and providing bibliographical information in the list of references or works cited appear in tabs 6, 7, and 8. Always use the latest edition of these texts.
Although writers in some academic disciplines such as anthro- pology, biology, geology, and history regularly use information graphics tables, graphs and other visuals photographs and schematic drawings to explain and support their ideas, others such as those writing in English literature and philosophy rarely do so, unless the subject of the project is visual as when writing about a film or a work of art.
Prepare for the Exam More about The most successful preparations begin long before the exam, as you stay on Reading critically, schedule with assigned readings, take notes and listen attentively in class, 7—13, 88—91 Taking notes, and work on assignments throughout the term. As you take notes, focus on —31 the major points; do not try to write down every detail.
Pay special attention Synthesis, 11—12, to ideas in the text or lecture that strike you as crucial or interesting, and connect them to ideas you are learning in other classes. Before the exam, identify essential terms, concepts, issues, and patterns that have arisen repeatedly. Then draft—and answer—possible questions based on them.
Approach the Exam Strategically When you take the exam, look it over before beginning to write. Determine how many points are assigned to each question, and set a time limit for answering each part. What is the question? What am I supposed to do? North and South. Next, analyze each question. Consider what it asks you to do: Compare More about is quite different from define or summarize, so pay close attention to verbs, Analysis, 10—12, 34, 90, , and do what they tell you.
As you write your answer, incorporate evidence and con- Summary, 7, —29 nect it back to your thesis. Devote most of your time to supporting your Outlining, 23—24, thesis, but try to wrap up your answer with a concluding statement or —34 paragraph. Thesis state- Finally, check your work: Does your thesis answer all parts of the ments, 21—23, 91—92, —33 question precisely and fully? Did you support all of your major points suf- Proofreading, ficiently? Did you include any irrelevant material?
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